All over the world people are seeking to exploit coastal regions in search of development opportunities and recreation. This has caused an increasing number of use conflicts and at the same time an increased awareness of the fragility and vulnerability of the coastal zone. In many countries it has led to an integrated view of the coastal zone as an entity that must be treated accordingly. It appears that increasing demographic pressure on the coast coincides with an increase in world wide coastal erosion. A survey by the International Geomorphological Society has revealed that coasts under the influence of man, as well as virgin coasts, are on average suffering. The present secular rise in ocean water level may be a significant cause, but in some regions also large development schemes undoubtedly add to the problems by arresting sediments before they reach the coast. The coastal zone is dynamic and has warranted increased research into coastal processes in recent decades. Universities throughout Europe and elsewhere are devoting much of their research efforts to the study of coastal problems and to developing modern tools.
All coastal problems have features in common. After all, wave and tide physics are universal and sandy beaches show similarities in their response to wave action. Yet, variations in local meteorology, geology, use pattern and so on, call for detailed knowledge of local coastal problems. It is, therefore, important to develop the local national expertise within those fields concurrently with the exchange of know-how and expertise of foreign institutions. This development should occur with a view to ensuring continuity, and understanding more global trends since coastal processes have to be studied over a considerable timespan.
The coast of Ireland represents a major national resource. It offers both economic and energy production potential, yet realisation of such potential must retain the high quality of our coastal environment. In the next 50 years our coastline faces further pressure from the consequences of global warming — sea level rise and increasing storm frequency and intensity — and from general reinforcement of socioeconomic exploitation and development. To deal with this increasing stress, it is necessary to reconsider our policies, plans and techniques for reacting to coastal problems and, in particular, we must view the coast as a natural system which needs to operate freely in order to remain stable. All developments should aim to work with, rather than against, this natural system. It is also important that a full inventory is made of our coastal resources as a basis for policy and planning. Such database should help identify areas at risk, assess the impact of sea level rise and provide an interactive medium for planners, engineers and developers. There is a requirement to re-educate the public which at present assumes all shoreline change is bad and must be resisted at any cost and with all possible means. The idea that we should adjust to the needs of the coast rather than subjugate it must be accepted by all.
Of the processes operating around our coast at present, erosion and its repercussions are the most celebrated and widely studied. Carter and Johnston in 1982 and Carter in 1991 estimated that there are at least 300 recognisable erosion problems around our coast affecting approximately 25 per cent of our coastline. The removal of shore material by waves and currents is the main cause of erosion, but the extent and form of erosion depends on a number of other factors. Wide flat beaches, characteristic of our north and west coasts, dissipate wave energy. Wide beach environments minimise the effects of high energy from the Atlantic swell. Although of quantitatively lower wave energy, the east coast is where most of our coastal erosion problems occur. The beaches are narrower and steeper in form and have been developed in relatively soft glacial sediment. Other natural factors affecting erosion on coasts include sea level rise, storminess, changes in sediment budgets and fluctuations in river discharge. Material eroded from the beach is often carried offshore and deposited in relatively shallow water. This sediment can act as protection for the coast, absorbing much of the wave energy before it reaches the shore. This sediment can be subjected to further transportation and its movement can result in the focus of erosion moving along the coast.
Since at least the 19th century with the growth in major engineering works along the coast, people have at all times initiated or increased erosion problems. Dredging, sand mining, ship wake generation, recreational activities, reclamation and the construction of harbours, sea walls and jetties force the coastal environment to change in some way to accommodate them. These activities may not affect the coast immediately, but they can cause problems over time and in some cases over considerable distances. For example, reclamation in Wexford Harbour more than 100 years ago has led to erosion problems on an eight kilometre stretch of Rosslare Bay. This is but one of numerous examples of coastal reclamation having led to subsequent sediment budget, erosion and deposition changes around the coastline.
The Clonakilty-Rosscarbery Bay area of south west Cork has undergone intensive study on erosion problems. This has resulted in the emplacement of gabions to help stabilise the dune front on two beaches, the reinforcement and rock armouring of a sea wall and the construction of tracks and fences in sand dune systems to control pedestrian access to the beach. The highest rates of erosion occur in cliffs of glacial material. At Blackwater in County Wexford, for example, erosion rates of up to 2.2 metres per annum have been recorded. The eroded material may be deposited in estuaries and related tidal bedforms. In this case the mouth of the River Slaney is the biggest sink. In addition, the sediment may form barriers, ridges or dunes downdrift of the erosion points. Some of the sediment may also be taken offshore and deposited on the shelf forming banks which are common in the shallow water of the west Irish sea.
The sediment which finds its way into ports, harbours and estuaries can cause problems for fishing and shell fish farming, radically changing local coastal environments. Sand dunes react to erosion in an equally complex way. Rates are difficult to quantify and major recession may occur in the wake of a storm, but between storms large quantities of sand may be blown back on to the foreshore causing accretion. The nature of sand dunes is changing due to human interference. Golf courses have been constructed on dune complexes modifying the dunes to the needs of developers. Grazing of cattle and sheep on sand dunes and sand sheet systems has influenced the ecology of Irish dunes for centuries. The recent application of fertilisers to dune soils threatens vegetation more drastically. Dunes in Ireland have been used as rabbit warrens for food for centuries. The removal of marram grass from dunes, for thatching purposes had the same effect.
Storms on the Irish coast between 1987 and 1992 caused severe erosion and extensive damage to coastal structures, many of which were built in the last century and are now in poor condition. An estimate of the cost of carrying out emergency repairs was put at £13 million as far back as 1990.
Ireland's population has increasingly been concentrated in coastal areas and many coastal towns and cities regularly experience flooding by the sea. The usual causes of urban flooding, rapid run-off from impermeable surfaces and the failure of storm drains to cope with sudden high volumes of water, are magnified in these estuary locations during high tides as terrestrial water finds its escape route cut off by sea water. An analysis of flooding in Cork City showed that there had been 292 floods there since 1841, most of them recorded in winter, especially in the months of November and March.
Much recent coastal work in Ireland has concentrated on the question of management, the ongoing concerns about erosion, storm damage and coastal zone planning added to by a fear of sea level rise which may result from the increasing global warming. It has been pointed out that, although knowledge of the coastal processes has improved in the past decade, theoretical knowledge of the response of coastal environments to rises in sea level is not yet adequate. More field measurement needs to be undertaken so that widely applicable models can be developed and put to use in planning management strategies for our coastlines.
Of course, coastal management is not a problem peculiar to Ireland. As a member of the European Union we have been involved in a number of programmes aimed at gathering, co-ordinating and improving the consistency of information on the coastal environment within the European Union. Those programmes have endeavoured to strengthen planning procedures and develop a concept of integrated management of coastal zones but community policy has not yet been developed to the maximum possible extent. For example, we need better and stronger legal instruments, improved management of Structural Funds in the protection of coastal zones, financial support for coastal pilot projects and, of course, measures to improve public participation.
A number of those programmes are continuing within the Commission. When faced with the prospect of rising sea levels, it is better to prepare early for planning and investing for change so that developments can be introduced gradually within the financial technological and personal constraints obtaining.
Traditionally, it could be said that Ireland has neglected this valuable asset, although arguably this country has one of the most scenic coastlines in Europe. However, it is now realised that coastal systems are frequently fragile, non-renewable and that the important tourism industry of the future will depend largely on the preservation of our coasts.
In circumstances of projected climate change coasts will be subjected to increased pressure, rendering it necessary to understand what is likely to occur and plan accordingly. A "needs study" of the entire coastline was carried out on a county basis to identify the basic land-forms present and to quantify the cost of the immediate remedial action required. Areas particularly sensitive to change were also identified. That study showed that out of a total coastline of 5,800 kilometres in the Republic over 1,500 kilometres are at risk, with some 490 kilometres requiring immediate attention at an approximate cost of £125 million.
That figure includes repairs to minor piers and harbours under the control of local authorities but excludes major harbours and those controlled by harbour boards. More than 500 of these piers and small harbours were generally identified as having been built in the last century. These have a significant impact on tourism, leisure activities and the livelihood of local fishermen. However, there is no specific budget allocation for their upkeep, many being in a state of serious disrepair.
The estimated costs of erosion control are based largely on traditional hard structural solutions whereas it is clear that, in future, a soft approach to coastal erosion management will be required in many cases. The removal of beach materials is another serious problem for some local authorities. A potentially more serious problem could arise in the near future if there are moves to exploit offshore sand banks as sources of construction materials. Both activities must be strictly controlled as failure to do so would be catastrophic for sections of our coastline.
The position regarding coastal erosion control in other countries, including Denmark, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom and the USA, was examined, and showed a trend towards total coastal management rather than treating erosion in isolation. Management systems worldwide range from virtually total control in countries like the Netherlands to none in underdeveloped Third World countries. As in other areas of human activity, it is recognised that development must be sustainable, that is fulfils the needs of the present generation without adversely affecting or compromising the needs of future generations. This is especially germane to coastal development where the resource is not infinite, when even minor adjustments to coastal processes can seriously affect the overall pattern, often over a timescale well beyond human life spans.
Present European Union policy and that in the immediate future must be seen to favour this total approach. While funding is generally not available for erosion protection schemes in anything like the volume required, there is at present a movement towards the development of a coherent strategy for coastal Europe involving the production of regional management plans. For example, the position obtaining in Denmark and the Netherlands is considered to be a good, general model for Ireland, with suitable modifications. It is interesting that the Danes have been able to advance technological solutions which would appear, at face value, to incur reasonable cost and be quite effective.
It is recommended that an agency charged with overall management of coastal affairs be established within a Government Department, most likely either that of the Marine or the Environment. The Department of the Marine has the requisite expertise in coastal engineering formally vested in the Office of Public Works and is the responsible authority under the Coastal Protection Act, 1963 and the Foreshore (Amendment) Act, 1992. The Department of the Environment controls planning matters on the coastline and, within the coastal zone, will also have responsibility for the Environmental Protection Agency.
In other countries it is considered essential that a single authority should have the regulatory role for onshore and offshore development within the coastal zone but the most important factor is the need for close co-operation and interaction between all relevant agencies. The proposed agency — the national coastal authority — would have close interaction with the Environmental Protection Agency and the Marine Institute along with local authority planning departments. It is envisaged that the new agency would be staffed largely from existing resources and would not require increased public sector employment. The national coastal authority would be responsible for developing policy on the needs of the entire coastal zone, including both the land and offshore waters contiguous to the coastline. Maritime local authorities would continue to manage the coastlines falling within their remit but central guidelines would be developed to ensure uniformity of approach.
When dealing with coastal erosion it is considered necessary to draw a distinction between response to slow, continuous erosion, where sediment is lost to the coastal system, and that to damage caused by infrequent storms. Following the Dutch model, the slow, continuous erosion would be the responsibility of the new central agency along with dealing with the implications of climate change, while the response to storms would continue to be a local responsibility.
New legal and financial arrangements are recommended. The existing Foreshore and Coastal Protection Acts should be replaced by a single coastal zone management Act similar to the United States Coastal Zone Management Act enacted there in 1972 and subsequently amended. In most other countries, including Ireland, a local contribution is required for most capital coastal works. However, in Ireland, as local authorities have limited scope for raising local taxes, it is recommended that a fund be established to respond to emergencies caused by storms. That fund, with annual contributions by local and central Government, should be available whenever such emergencies arise.
In a small country like ours, where most of the population lives within 80 kilometres of the sea and everybody benefits from the coast, strong central financial support can be justified. I am not saying, however, that the overall estimate for the cost of doing all the works could be undertaken immediately. It is clear that they would have to be carried out on a phased basis but we need the instruments, the authority and the necessary legislation to ensure a coherent response to what everybody recognises is a serious problem.
The accumulation of the basic data needed to manage the coast is perhaps the most vital need of all, especially in a situation of projected climate change. This includes water levels, tide patterns, wind and wave data as well as studies of sediment supply along the coast and the natural processes taking place. It is interesting that even on a cursory study, the difference between the west and east coast is evident. The collection of this data would be the responsibility of the new agency with the field work being carried out by staff of local authorities, the private sector and educational establishments, with possible input from voluntary bodies such as Coastwatch and An Taisce.
It is recommended that the local coastal zone management plans are developed for the coast under the general control of the central agency. The planning could be on a county or regional basis, although it might make more sense to combine areas of similar coastline as coastal processes do not recognise administrative boundaries. The recently published Coastline Management Plan — Brady Shipman Martin
1992— for the Wexford coastline provides a good model for planning.
It is considered that a favourable response could be expected to a request for EU funding on a much greater scale for both basic data collection and coastal zone planning as the approach appears to complement projected EU policies. The cost of running and administering the national coastal authority might even be partly funded in this way.
Education and expertise needs are considered. Traditionally, civil engineers have been mainly responsible for combating erosion, adopting a fairly rigid structural approach. While engineers should continue in a lead role in coastal management, they will require a much broader appreciation of the natural processes at work and of the contributions required from other disciplines such as geographers, environmental scientists, ecologists, etc. Solutions will be developed by a multidisciplinary approach but engineers with environmental training would appear to be in the best position for overall co-ordination.
All civil engineering students should have a basic appreciation of coastal management and mid-career training in specialist aspects should be available to keep abreast of modern developments. Mathematical modelling techniques have recently become available which vastly increase the capability for coastal management and which have directly led to a surge in understanding of the various coastal morphological processes over the past few years. Courses in physical planning should also include a module on the special needs of the coastal zone.
Relationships should be established between bodies in Ireland and expert agencies elsewhere, such as developed between Eolas and Danish Hydraulics. The Hydraulics Research Establishment would also be involved. The facilities of these and of other local educational establishments with special expertise would be used in the various studies required.
It is essential that a close working relationship is maintained with the relevant authorities and sources of expertise in Northern Ireland. Coastal problems span political boundaries and assistance for joint projects might be available from the International Fund for Ireland. All the above relationships would assist the exchange of expertise and technology transfer to take place and allow the development of a coherent European approach to overall coastal management.
A single new agency, the national coastal authority, should be established within an existing Government Department following the approach adopted in other countries. This agency would be responsible for all coastal matters and would have a regulatory role in development within the coastal zone. Central Government, through the proposed national coastal authority, should be responsible for combating ongoing coastal erosion, including dealing with the effects of climate change. Large scale beach nourishment at selected locations will probably be required and this should be managed and funded centrally.
Responding to isolated storm events would continue as a local responsibility but a funding system is required to ensure immediate and appropriate response to each emergency.
A single new Act, the coastal zone management Act, should replace the existing Foreshore Act and Coastal Protection Act. The coastal zone would be clearly defined and the public's right of access to beaches enshrined in law. Activities such as beach and offshore material removal would be strictly controlled. The legal status of areas of scientific interest should be strengthened by national by-laws, especially for sand dune systems.
The strategic importance to Ireland of the coastal zone should be recognised in all submissions to the European Union for Structural Fund assistance. Extensive data collection is required, including the establishment of an expanded network of water level measurement stations. This is especially important when considering the effects of predicted sea level rise. The cost of this data collection, research and necessary capital works should be included in these submissions.
The concept of coastal management, rather than coastal protection, would be in accord with policy trends in Europe and worldwide. Coastal zone management plans should be prepared for the coast, either on a regional or county basis. Overall planning guidelines should be issued and should reflect the sensitive and non-renewable nature of much of the coast with procedures to limit development within the coastal zone. The cost of developing these plans should also be included in European Regional Development Fund submissions.
A code of practice for coastal protection should be drawn up to ensure the uniformity and appropriateness of all works.
Recommendations for maintaining a large number of minor piers and harbours should be made by the new agency as a matter of urgency and specific funding provided to local authorities for this function. Expertise needs require expansion of existing technical and planning courses with in-service training provided for practising engineers and scientists. Education of the general public is also required to counter unrealistic expectations of coastal usage and performance.
Relationships should be established between Irish agencies and specialist organisations in other countries to facilitate technology transfer. In particular, close liaison should be maintained with authorities in Northern Ireland as coastal processes do not stop at political boundaries. Funding for joint projects should be sought from sources such as the International Fund for Ireland.
As a result of global warming, the world's temperatures are expected to rise over the next 40 or 60 years bringing about a rise in sea levels of up to 1.3 metres. In 1990, Devoy considered that "a rise in temperature overall in Ireland as a consequence of climate warming is, therefore, likely to be associated with fewer storms from the Atlantic, drier conditions in the west at least, and more of our weather dominated by continental conditions from the east, including increased frequency of easterly storms". He further felt that in the short term there would be increased intensity, if not frequency, of westerly storms over Ireland.
Devoy suggested that the likely impact of this on coastal erosion and damaged sea defences would be high. He concluded that "storms generated from the east will be able to gain greater access to the open west-east geological structure along the south coast". This scenario has obvious implications for County Waterford, in common with neighbouring coastal authorities. The problem areas are known in Counties Waterford and Wexford but the ability of local authorities to fund new sea defence works has been eroding faster than the nation's shores. Waterford County Council has spent almost £0.9 million as a result of storms over the years. Grant assistance was received from the Department of the Marine as part of a relief package introduced by the Government to remedy the destruction caused.
I want to make a final reference to this lest there be any misinterpretation of what we are seeking. It is clear that it will not be possible to cope with all these problems together. There has been a certain amount of neglect in the past.
I do not expect this Minister to immediately come up with solutions to questions that could not be solved up to now, but there is sufficient evidence to show that there is a dire necessity for change, for a new authority and new funding. It is possible now, because of the state of the national finances and the most privileged position of any Government for years, to do things which were not possible up to now. I hope that the response from the Minister will demonstrate his and the Government's commitment to ensuring that our natural resources, our coastline which is so vital for tourism and for our communities are adequately protected. The proposals we have put forward will greatly assist the Minister in his work.
